Saturday 12 November 2011
Monday 10 October 2011
The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs Of Islam!..(The Rashidun)
The Rashidun
The Four Rightly Guided Caliphs Of Islam
This article includes a brief description about the life of the four caliphs. So that one could know and learn from them, by reflecting upon their way of life, their leadership, sacrifices & contribution towards Islam.
(Note: All the controversial theories, opinions and explanations are tried to be excluded from the article)
Abu Bakr (R)
(The first caliph)
He was called Al-Siddiq (The Truthful) and was known by that title among later generations of Muslims.
Abu Bakr(r) was born in Mecca some time in 573 CE, to a rich family in the Banu Tamim clan of the Quraysh tribe.
Aisha(r)’s description of Abu Bakr(r):
He was a man with fair skin, thin, emaciated, with a sparse beard, a slightly hunched frame, sunken eyes and protruding forehead and the bases of his fingers were hairless.
Abu Bakr(r) life before Accepting Islam:
As a young man, Abu Bakr(r) became a cloth merchant and he traveled extensively in Arabia and neighboring lands in the Middle East, through which he gained both wealth and experience. He eventually came to be recognized as the chief of his clan.
Abu Bakr(r) life after Accepting Islam:
On his return from a business trip to Yemen, he was informed that in his absence Muhammad(S) had openly declared his prophet hood. Not long after, Abu Bakr(r) accepted Islam and was the first person outside the family of Muhammad(SAWS) to openly become a Muslim.
For three years after the advent of Islam, Muslims kept secret their faith, and prayed in secret. In 613 Muhammad(S) decided to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad(S) was delivered by Abu Bakr(r). In a fit of fury the young men of the Quraysh tribe rushed at Abu Bakr(r), and beat him mercilessly till he lost consciousness. Following this incident Abu Bakr's mother converted to Islam. Abu Bakr(r) was persecuted many times by the Quraysh. Abu Bakr's(r) beliefs would have been defended by his own clan, but not by the entire Quraysh tribe.
His wife Qutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and he divorced her. His other wife, Um Ruman, became a Muslim. All his children except Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr accepted Islam, and Abu Bakr(r) separated from his son Abdu'l-Rahman.
He was instrumental in the conversion of many people to the Islamic faith and early in 623, Abu Bakr's(r) daughter Aisha(r) was married to Muhammad(S), strengthening the ties between the two men.
His conversion brought the most benefit to Islam. Abu Bakr's(r) brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert to Islam and presented Islam to others in such a way that many of his friends accepted Islam.
Those who converted to Islam at the instance of Abu Bakr(r) were:
Uthman Ibn Affan (who would became the 3rd Caliph)
Abu Salama (Abdullah bin Abdul Asad)
(Shahid Ashraf, "Encyclopaedia of Holy Prophet and Companions)
Abu Bakr's(r) freeing of slaves:
Abu Bakr's(r) acceptance proved to be a milestone in Muhammad(S)'s mission. Slavery was common in Mecca, and many slaves accepted Islam. When an ordinary free man accepted Islam, despite opposition, he would enjoy the protection of his tribe. For slaves however, there was no such protection and they commonly experienced persecution. Abu Bakr(r) felt compassion for slaves, so he purchased eight slaves(four men and four women) and then freed them, paying 40,000 dinar for their freedom.
The men were:
The women were:
Most of the slaves liberated by Abu Bakr(r) were either women or old and frail men. The father of Abu Bakr(r) asked him to for why doesn't he liberate strong and young slaves who could be a source of strength for him, Abu Bakr(r) replied that he was freeing the slaves for the sake of Allah, and not for his own sake.
Abu Bakr(r) Companionship with Prophet(S):
Abu Bakr(r) was a trusted advisor and the closest friend to the Prophet(S). He even in the pre Islamic time, refrained himself from the things which were later declared unlawful in Islam, eg drinking of alcohol etc which were very common at that time. Abu Bakr(r) resembled in nature and character to Mohammad(S) which made them very good friend and companions.
Abu bakr (r) was also honoured by Allah, as his being in the cave with prophet(s) during their migration to madina is mentioned in the Qur’an:
if ye help not (your Leader) (it is no matter): for Allah did indeed help him; when the unbelievers drove him out: he had no more than one companion: they two were in the cave, and he said to his companion "Have no Fear, for Allah is with us": then Allah sent down His peace upon him, and strengthened him with forces which ye saw not, and humbled to the depths the word of the Unbelievers. But the word of Allah is exalted to the heights: for Allah is Exalted in might, Wise.[Quran 9:40]
I said to the Prophet when were in the cave, "If only they had looked under their feet we would assuredly be seen" The Messenger answered, "ﻣﺎ ﻇﻨﻚ ﻳﺎ ﺃ ﺑﺎ ﺑﻜﺮ ﺑﺎ ﺛﻨﻴﻦ ﺍﷲ ﺛﺎ ﻟﺘﻬﻤﺎ" (What do you think O' Abu Bakr about two people if Allah is the third, meaning God was with them.)
[Tartib wa Tahthib Kitab al-Bidayah wan-Nihayah by ibn Kathir, published by Dar al-Wathan publications , Riyadh Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1422 Anno hegiræ (2002) compiled by Dr. Muhammad ibn Shamil as-Sulami, page 16]
Muhammad(S) said:
No doubt, I am indebted to Abu Bakr more than to anybody else regarding both his companionship and his wealth. And if I had to take a Khalil from my followers, I would certainly have taken Abu Bakr, but the fraternity of Islam is sufficient. Let no Door of the Mosque remain open, except the door of Abu Bakr
(^ Sahih al-Bukhari, Volume 1, Book 8, Number 456 and Volume 5, Book 58, Number 244 narrated by ibn 'Abbaas and Abu Sa`eed al-Khudri respectively)
he was involved in several campaigns such as the Battle of Uhud, the Battle of the Trench, the Invasion of Banu Qurayza, Battle of Khaybar, the Conquest of Mecca, the Battle of Hunayn, the Siege of Ta'if, and the Battle of Tabuk where he was reported to have given all of his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. He also participated in the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witnesses over the pact.
At the Death of Prophet(S):
In 631, three months after completing his Farewell Pilgrimage to Mecca, the Prophet(S) became fatally ill. Abu Bakr(r) came from his house at As-Sunh (a village) on a horse where he had been with his new wife. He dismounted and entered the Prophet's Mosque, but did not speak to anyone until he entered upon 'Aa'isha(r). He went straight to Muhammad(S) who was covered with Hibra cloth (a kind of Yemenite cloth). He then uncovered Muhammad(S)’s face and kissed him and wept, saying, "Let my father and mother be sacrificed for you. By Allah, Allah will never cause you to die twice. As for the death which was written for you, has come upon you."
'Umar(r) was making a sermon to the people saying, "By Allah, he is not dead but has gone to his Lord as Musa(as) went and remained hidden from his people for forty days. Musa(as) returned after it was said that he had died. By Allah, the Messenger of Allah will come back and he will cut off the hands and legs of those who claim his death."
Abu Bakr(r) arrived and said, "Sit down, O 'Umar!" But 'Umar(r) refused to sit down. So the people came to Abu Bakr(r) and left Umar(r). Abu Bakr(r) said, "To proceed, if anyone amongst you used to worship Muhammad(S), then Muhammad(S) has passed away, but if (anyone of) you used to worship Allah, then Allah is Alive and shall never die. Allah said,
"And Muhammad is but a messenger; the messengers have come before him; if then he dies or is killed will you turn back upon your heels? And whoever turns back upon his heels, he will by no means do harm to Allah in the least and Allah will reward the grateful." (3.144)
'Umar(r) said, "By Allah, when I heard Abu Bakr(r) reciting it, my legs could not support me and I fell down at the very moment of hearing him reciting it, declaring that the Prophet(S) had passed away."
Tribes all around Arabia broke out in open revolt; while they continued to acknowledge Muhammad(S) as a prophet, they refused to send taxes to Medina now that Muhammad(S) no longer lived.
But Abu Bakr(r) defeated the rebellion of those tribes through his great general khalid ibn waleed(r) in a successful campaign and unified the entire Arabian Peninsula and gave it stability
Abu Bakr(r) launched successful campaigns against the Sassanid Empire (Persian Empire) and the East Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire) who were threatening Arabia's borders. Prior to dispatching his army to Syria against the Romans, Abu Bakr(r) gave them the following commands which established the conduct of war for later Muslim generations:
"I advise you ten things: Do not kill women or children or an aged, infirm person. Do not cut down fruit-bearing trees. Do not destroy an inhabited place. Do not slaughter sheep or camels except for food. Do not burn bees and do not scatter them. Do not steal from the booty, and do not be cowardly."
Preserving the Qur'an
According to Sunni Islam, Abu Bakr(r) was instrumental in preserving the Qur'an in written form. It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama fought in 632, Umar(r), saw that many of the Muslims who had memorized the Qur'an had died in battle. Fearing that the Qur'an may be lost or corrupted, Umar(r) requested the Caliph Abu Bakr(r) to authorize the compilation and preservation of the Book in written format. After initial hesitation, Abu Bakr(r) made a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thabit(r) which included the memorizers of the Qur'an and Umar(r) and to collect all verses of the Book.
After collecting all Qur'anic verses from texts in the possession of various sahaba, Zayd ibn Thabit(r) and members of his committee verified the reading by comparing with those who had memorized the Qur'an. After they were satisfied that they had not missed out any verse or made any mistakes in reading or writing it down, the text was written down as one single manuscript and presented in a book form to the Caliph Abu Bakr(r). It is believed that this process happened within one year of the death of Muhammad(S) when most of his sahaba (companions) were still alive.
Prior to his death, Abu Bakr(r) gave this authorized copy of the Qur'an to Umar (r)- his successor. It remained with him throughout his tenure as Caliph (10 years). Prior to his death, Umar(r) gave this Book to his daughter Hafsa bint Umar(r), who was one of the wives of Muhammad(S).
At the Time of Death:
On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr(r) fell sick and did not recover due to his old age.
He appointed Umar(r) as his successor after discussing with some companions. Some of them favored the nomination and others disliked it, due to the tough nature of Umar(r).
In the name of Most Merciful God. This is the last will and testament of Abu Bakr bin Abu Quhafa(r), when he is in the last hour of the world, and the first of the next; an hour in which the infidel must believe, the wicked be convinced of their evil ways, I nominate Umar bin al Khattab (r) as my successor. Therefore, hear to him and obey him. If he acts right, confirm his actions. My intentions are good, but I cannot see the future results. However, those who do ill shall render themselves liable to severe account hereafter. Fare you well. May you be ever attended by the Divine favor of blessing.
Abu Bakr(r) next asked Aisha(r) to how many pieces of cloth were used for Muhammad(S)'s shroud. Aisha(r) said that three pieces had been used. Abu Bakr(r) thereupon desired the same number for his own shroud. On Monday 23 August 634 Abu Bakr(r) died. The funeral prayer was led by Umar(r). He was buried the same night by the side of Muhammad(S)'s grave in Aisha(S)'s house near Al-Masjid al-Nabawi.
His Legacy:
Abu Bakr(r) became the Caliph on 8 June 632 and he died on 23 August 634. Though the period of his caliphate covers only two years, two months and fifteen days, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time: the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire.
Abu Bakr(r) had the distinction of being the first Caliph in the history of Islam and also the first Caliph to nominate a successor. He was the only Caliph in the history of Islam who refunded to the state treasury at the time of his death the entire amount of the allowance that he had drawn during the period of his caliphate
He is revered for being the first Muslim ruler to establish:
The Crown Pasture
Abu Bakr(r) had given up drinking wine even in the time before Islam. He was the foremost genealogist of the Quraysh and was well accomplished at interpreting dreams according to Ibn Sirin.
He was one of al-`Ashara al-Mubasharîn fi-l-Janna (The Ten Promised Paradise) whom Muhammad(S) had testified were destined for Paradise.
Caliph Abu Bakr(r)'s empire at its peak
Umar bin al khattab (R)
(The second caliph)
'Umar bin Al-Khattab(r) was called Al-Farooq (he who distinguishes truth from falsehood)
Umar(r) was born in Mecca to the Banu Adi clan in 586–590 in Mecca, Arabia, his clan was responsible for arbitrations among the tribes. He was the nephew of Khalid ibn al-Walid(r). He is said to have belonged to a middle class family His father was famed for his intelligence among his tribe. Despite literacy being uncommon in pre-Islamic Arabia, Umar(r) learned to read and write in his youth. Though not a poet himself, he developed a love for poetry and literature.
According to the tradition of Quraish, while still in his teenage years, Umar(r) learned martial arts, horse riding and wrestling. He was amongst the most bravest and courageous people in makkah. He was tall and physically powerful and was soon to become a renowned wrestler, people used to fear him for his anger. Umar(r) was also a gifted orator, and due to his intelligence and overwhelming personality, he succeeded his father as an arbitrator of conflicts among the tribes. Umar(r) followed the traditional profession of Quraish. He became a merchant and had several journeys to Rome and Persia, where he is said to have met various scholars and analyzed the Roman and Persian societies closely
Umar(r) was a leading companion and adviser to the prophet Muhammad(S). Converting to Islam in the 6th year after Muhammad(S)'s first revelation, he spent 18 years in companionship of Muhammad(S). He succeeded Caliph Abu Bakr(r) on 23 August 634, and played a significant role in Islam.
Under Umar(r) the Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate, controlling the whole territory of the former Sassanid Persian Empire and more than two thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire. His legislative abilities, his firm political and administrative control over a rapidly expanding empire and his brilliantly coordinated attacks against the Sassanid Persian Empire that resulted in the conquest of the Persian empire in less than two years.
Life before Accepting Islam:
In 610 Muhammed(S) started delivering the message of Islam. Umar(r), alongside others in Makkah, opposed Islam and threatened to kill Muhammad(S). He resolved to defend the traditional, polytheistic religion of Arabia. He was most adamant and cruel in opposing Muhammad(S) and very prominent in persecuting the Muslims. Umar(r) was the first man who resolved that Muhammad(S) had to be murdered in order to finish Islam. Umar(r) firmly believed in the unity of the Quraish and saw the new faith of Islam as a cause of division and discord among the Quraish.
The Acceptance of Islam:
Umar(r) converted to Islam in 616. The story was recounted in Ibn Ishaq's Sīrah: On the way to murder Muhammad(S), Umar(r) met his best friend Nu'aim ibn Abdi(r) 'Allah who had secretly embraced Islam but he did not tell Umar(r) anything about it. When Umar(r) told him that he was going to kill Muhammad(S), he was afraid. He knew that Umar(r) would attempt what he said. So just to divert his attention he told him to set his own house in order first, as his sister and her husband had converted to Islam. Umar(r) was taken aback to learn this. Upon arriving at her house, Umar(r) found his sister and brother-in-law Saeed bin Zaid (Umar's cousin), reciting the verses of the Qur'an (Surah Ta Ha).
[as-Suyuti, The History of Khalifahs Who Took The Right Way (London, 1995), p. 107-108; T.P. Hughes, 1999, Dictionary of Islam, New Delhi: Rupa & Co..]
He started quarreling with his brother-in-law . When his sister came to rescue her husband, he also started quarreling with her. Yet still they kept on saying "you may kill us but we will not give up Islam". Upon hearing these words, Umar(r) slapped his sister so hard that she fell to the ground bleeding from her mouth. When he saw what he had done to his sister, out of guilt he calmed down and asked his sister to give him what she was reciting. She gave him the paper on which was written the verses of the chapter Ta-Ha. He was so struck by the beauty of the verses that he became a Muslim that day. He then went to Muhammad(S) with the same sword he intended to kill him with and converted in front of him and his companions. Umar(r) was 27 when he became Muslim.
Life after Accepting Islam:
Umar(r)’s accepting Islam shocked the Quraish, and at the same time benefited Muslims, According to one account, Umar(r) after accepting Islam openly prayed at the Kaaba and the Quraish chiefs, just watched in anger. This further helped the Muslims to gain confidence in practicing Islam openly. At this stage Umar(r) even challenged anyone who dared to stop the Muslims from praying, although no one dared to interfere with Umar(r) when he was openly praying.
Umar(r)’s conversion to Islam gave power to the Muslims and the faith in Mecca. It was after this that Muslims offered prayers openly in Masjid al-Haram for the first time. Abdullah bin Masoud(r) said:
Umar's embracing Islam was our victory, his migration to Medina was our success and his reign a blessing from Allah, we didn't offer prayers in Al-Haram Mosque until Umar accepted Islam, when he accepted Islam Quraish were compelled to let us pray in the Mosque.
[Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, Mohammad Allias Aadil, page no:30]
All these things earned Umar(r) the title of Farooq, meaning he who distinguishes truth from falsehood.
Umar(r) Migration to Madina
Ibn Asakir(r) narrated that Ali(r) said: I don’t know of anyone who didn’t emigrate in secret except for Umar ibn al-Khattab(r); because when he wanted to emigrate he strapped on his sword, put his bow over his shoulder, carried his arrows in his hand, and came to the Ka‘bah where the nobles of Quraysh were in the courtyard. He performed seven circuits, and then prayed two raka‘at at the Station (of Ibrahim). Then he approached their circle one step at a time and said, "Whoever wishes to bereave his mother, orphan his children and widow his wife then let him meet me behind this valley." Not one of them followed him.
[ Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, Mohammad Allias Aadil]
Umar(r)’s Participations:
In 624 Umar(r) participated in the first Battle between Muslims and Quraish of Mecca i.e. Battle of Badr. In 625 he participated in the Battle of Uhud. Umar(r) was a part of campaign against the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. In 625 Umar(r)’s daughter Hafsah was married to Muhammad(S). in 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Battle of Banu QurayzaIn 628. Umar(r) participated in the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and was made one of the witness over the pact.[In 628 he was a part of Muslims' campaign to Khaybar.In 629 Muhammad(S) sent Amr ibn al-A’as(r) to Zaat-ul-Sallasal from where he called for reinforcement and Muhammad(S) sent Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah(r) with reinforcement, serving under him were Abu Bakr(r) and Umar(r), they attacked and defeated the enemy. In 630 when Muslim armies rushed for the Conquest of Mecca he was part of that army.
Later in 630 he was part of Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if. He was part of Muslim's army that went for the campaign of Tabuk under Muhammad(S)'s command and he was reported to have given half of his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. He also participated in a farewell Hajj of Muhammad(S) in 631
Later in 630 he was part of Battle of Hunayn and Siege of Ta'if. He was part of Muslim's army that went for the campaign of Tabuk under Muhammad(S)'s command and he was reported to have given half of his wealth for the preparation of this expedition. He also participated in a farewell Hajj of Muhammad(S) in 631
Appointment as The 2nd Caliph
Due to his strict and autocratic nature, Umar(r) was not a very popular figure among the notables of Madinah and members of Majlis al Shura (religious body), accordingly succession of Umar(r) was initially discouraged by high ranking companions of Abu Bakr(r).[ Serat-i-Hazrat Umar-i-Farooq, by Mohammad Allias Aadil]
When Abu Bakr(r) was close to death, he nominated Umar(r) to succeed him as the next Caliph.[Umar(r) was still well known for his extraordinary will power, intelligence, political astuteness, impartiality, justice and care for poor and underprivileged people.
Abu Bakr(r) is reported to have said to the high-ranking advisers:
His (Umar's) strictness was there because of my softness when the weight of Caliphate will be over his shoulders he will remain no longer strict. If I will be asked by the God to whom I have appointed my successor, I will tell him that I have appointed the best man among your men.
[Umar Farooq-i-Azam, Mohammad Hussain Haikal,]
Abu Bakr(r) was fully aware of Umar(r)'s power and ability to succeed him. Abu Bakr(r) before his death called Uthman(r) to write his will in which he declared Umar(r) his successor. In his will he instructed Umar(r) to continue the conquests on Iraq and Syrian fronts. Abu Bakr(r)'s decision proved to be crucial in the strengthening of the nascent Islamic empire.
On 22 August Caliph Abu Bakr(r) died. The same day Umar(r) assumed the office of Caliphate. After the assumption of office as the Caliph, Umar(r) addressed the Muslims in his Inaugural address as:
"O ye faithful! Abu Bakr is no more amongst us. He has the satisfaction that he has successfully piloted the ship of the Muslim state to safety after negotiating the stormy sea. He successfully waged the apostasy wars, and thanks to him, Islam is now supreme in Arabia. After Abu Bakr, the mantle of Caliphate has fallen on my shoulders. I swear it before God that I never coveted this office. I wished that it would have devolved on some other person more worthy than me. But now that in national interest, the responsibility for leading the Muslims has come to vest in me, I assure you that I will not run away from my post, and will make an earnest effort to discharge the onerous duties of the office to the best of my capacity in accordance with the injunctions of Islam. Allah has examined me from you and you from me, In the performance of my duties, I will seek guidance from the Holy Book, and will follow the examples set by the Holy Prophet and Abu Bakr. In this task I seek your assistance. If I follow the right path, follow me. If I deviate from the right path, correct me so that we are not led astray.
Life as a Caliph
Umar(r) was rather more feared than loved. The first challenge for Umar(r) was to win out his subjects and members of Majlis al Shura. Umar(r) was a gifted orator, and he would use his ability to get a soft corner in the hearts of people.
On Friday prayers Umar (r) addressed the people as follows:
Brethren, it has come to my notice that the people are afraid of me..... they say that he (Umar) has become the Caliph now, God knows how hard he will be. Whoever has said this is not wrong in his assessment...... know ye brethren that you will feel a change in me.[1] For those who practice tyranny and deprive others of their rights, I will be harsh and stern, but for those who follow the law, I will be most soft and tender.
Umar(r) 's addresses greatly moved the people. Next time he addressed the people as:
I will be harsh and stern against the aggressor,[2] but I will be a pillar of strength for the weak.
I will not calm down until I will put one cheek of a tyrant on the ground and the other under my feet, and for the poor and weak, I will put my cheek on the ground.
The following are the historic words of Umar(r),[3] over which he laid foundation of his rule:
By God, he that is weakest among you shall be in my eye the strongest,[4] until I have vindicated for him his rights; he that is strongest I will treat as the weakest, until he complies with the law.
The Brilliance of Umar(r) in Civil and Political Administrations
The government of Umar(r) was more or less a unitary government, where the sovereign political authority was the Caliph. The empire of Umar(r) was divided into provinces and some autonomous territories. The provinces were administered by the provincial governors or Wali. The selection of which was made personally by Umar(r), who was very fastidious in it.
Provinces were further divided into districts, there were about 100 districts in the empire. Each district or main city was under the charge of a junior governor or Wali, usually appointed by Umar(r) himself
Other officers at the provincial level were:
1. Katib, the Chief Secretary.
2. Katib-ud-Diwan, the Military Secretary.
3. Sahib-ul-Kharaj, the Revenue Collector.
4. Sahib-ul-Ahdath, the Police chief.
5. Sahib-Bait-ul-Mal, the Treasury Officer.
6. Qadi, the Chief Judge.
Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment an instrument of instructions was issued with a view to regulating the conduct of Governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main mosque, and read the instrument of instructions before them.
Umar(r)'s general instructions to his officers were:
"Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the error of conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them."
Various strict code of conducts were to be obeyed by the governors and state officials. The principal officers were required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption
Umar(r) was first to established a special department for the investigation of complaints against the officers of the State. This department acted as Administrative court, where the legal proceedings were personally led by Umar(r). The Department was under the charge of Muhammad ibn Maslamah(r), one of Umar(r)'s most trusted men. In important cases Muhammad ibn Maslamah(r) was deputed by Umar(r) to proceed to the spot, investigate the charge and take action. Sometimes an Inquiry Commission was constituted to investigate the charge. On occasions the officers against whom complaints were received were summoned to Medina, and charged in Umar(r)'s administrative court. One of Umar(r)'s most powerful department was his intelligence department of secret services[]. Umar(r)'s iron fist rule on his empire, is often credited to this institution . His agents were everywhere, in the army, in the bureaucracy and in the enemy land. For the officials of Umar(r) it was said to be the most fearsome department
Umar(r) was a pioneer in some affairs:- Umar(r) was the first to introduce the public ministry system, where the records of officials and soldiers were kept. He also kept a record system that had the messages he sent to Governors and heads of states.
- He was the first to appoint police forces to keep civil order.
- He was the first to discipline the people when they became disordered.
Umar(r) A Political Geniuses
Umar(r) is regarded as one of the greatest political geniuses in history, under his leadership, the empire was expanding at a unprecedented rate. He build the political structure that would hold together the vast empire that was being built. He undertook many administrative reforms and closely oversaw public policy
In 638, he extended and renovated the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) in Mecca and the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet) in Medina
He issued orders that these Christians and Jews should be treated well and allotted them the equivalent land in their settlements.
He was first to establish army as a state department. Umar(r) was founder of Fiqh, the Islamic jurisprudence. Umar(r) as a jurist started the process of codifying Islamic Law.
In 641, he established Bayt al-mal, a financial institution and started annual state sponsored allowance for the poor Muslims in Makkah and Al Madinah. A year later he also started allowance for the poor, underprivileged and old non-Muslim citizens of the empire .
In the year 638, Arabia fell into severe drought followed by a famine. Bedouin people began to die because of hunger and epidemic disease. Hundreds of thousands of people from all over Arabia gathered at Madinah where food was rationed. Soon the reserves of food at Madinah began to decline, and Umar(r) wrote to the provincial governors of Syria, Palestine and Iraq for aid. A state of emergency was declared in Madinah and Arabia. The timely aid of Umar(r)'s governors saved the lives of thousands of people throughout Arabia.
As a leader 'Umar(r) was known for his simple, austere lifestyle. Rather than adopt the pomp and display affected by the rulers of the time, he continued to live much as he had when Muslims were poor and persecuted.
In 639, his fourth year as caliph and the seventeenth year since the Hijra, he decreed that the Islamic calendar should be counted from the year of the Hijra of Muhammad(S) from Mecca to Madinah.
Taraweeh, the night prayers during Ramadan, were institutionalized during Umar(r)'s reign as Caliph. Once when visiting the mosque, he saw different groups of people performing prayers, and suggested to them to join together in performing the prayers
Military Expansion:
under Umar(r), The Islamic empire grew at an unprecedented rate During his reign the Levant, Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost the whole of the Sassanid Persian Empire including Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus and Makran were annexed to Islamic Empire. According to one estimate more than 4050 cities were captured during these military conquests. At his death in November 644, the domain of his rule extended from present day Libya in west to the Indus river in east and the Oxus river in north.
Umar(r)’s martyrdom:
In 644, at zenith of his power, Umar(r) was martyred. His martyrdom was carried out by a Persian, in response to the Muslim conquest of Persia. The martyrdom was planned several months earlier.
In October 644 Umar(r) went for Hajj in Mecca. The assassins started the hoopla of Umar(r)'s possible death that year, and the massive crowd of the congregation was used by the conspirators as a veil to hide themselves. It is related that when Umar(r) stood at Mount Arafat he heard a voice saying:
"O Caliph, never again will you stand on the Mount of Arafa
A companion of Umar(r), Jabir bin Mutaam is reported to have said:
We saw a man standing at the top of the hill and crying 'Verily that is the last Hajj of Umar. He will never come here again."
During one of rituals of Hajj, the Ramy al-Jamarat (stoning of the Devil), some one threw a stone on Umar(r) that wounded his head, a voice was heard that Umar(r) will not attend the Hajj ever again.
Piruzan, popularly known as Abu Lulu, he was the governor of Busra. It was Abu Lulu who was assigned the mission of martyrdom of Umar(r). Abu Lulu brought a conjectural complaint to Umar(r) about the high tax charged from him by his master Mughirah. Umar(r) wrote to Mughirah and inquired about the tax. Mughirah's reply was satisfactory. Umar(r) held that the tax charged from Abu Lulu was reasonable, owning to his daily income.
Umar(r) then is reported to have asked Abu Lulu:
I heard that you make windmills; make one for me as well. In a sullen mood, Firoz said, "Verily I will make such a mill for you, that whole world would remember it".
Umar(r) was martyred of the wounds three days later on Sunday, 7 November 644. Umar(r) is reported to have left the following testament:
Be kind and generous to the Muhajirun and the Ansar. Those out of them who are good, be good to them; those who are bad overlook their lapses. Be good to the people of the conquered lands. They are the outer line of our defense; they are the target of the anger and distress of our enemies. They contribute to our revenues. They should be taxed only on their surplus wealth. Be gracious to the Bedouins as they are the backbone of the Arab nation. I instruct you to be good to the Dhimmis(non-Muslim) for they are your responsibility. Do not tax them beyond their capacity. Ensure that they pay the Jizya(tax) without undue inconvenience. Fear God, and in all that you do keep His pleasure in view. In the matter of people fear God, and in the matter of Allah do not be afraid of the people. With regard to the people, I enjoin upon you to administer justice with an even hand. See that all the legitimate requirements of the people are met. Be concerned for their welfare. Ensure the safety of their person and property. See that the frontiers of our domains are not violated. Take strong steps to guard the frontiers. In the matter of administration do not prefer the rich to the poor. Be hard against those who violate the law. Show them no mercy. Do not rest content until you have brought the miscreants to book. Treat all the people as equal. Be a pillar of strength for those who are weak and oppressed. Those who are strong but do wrong, make them pay for their wrong-doings. In the distribution of booty and other matters be above nepotism. Let no consideration of relationship or selfish interest weigh with you. The Satan is at large; it may tempt you. Rise above all temptations and perform your duties in accordance with the injunctions of Islam. Get guidance from the Holy Quran and Sunnah. Freely consult the wise men around you. Apply your own mind in difficult cases, and seek light from God. Be simple in your living and your habits. Let there be no show or ostentation about you. Lead life as a model Muslim. As you are the leader of the Muslims, justify your leadership by being the best among them all. May God bless you.
His Legacy:
Umar(r) is regarded as one of the most influential figures in Islamic history. He was in a true sense the architect of the Islamic Empire. As a leader, 'Umar(r) was known for his simple, austere lifestyle
In his book Encyclopaedia of Islam, Mufti Muhammad Mukarram Ahmed describes his journey to Jerusalem to take control of the city from the Byzantine Patriarch of Jerusalem Sophronius:
Hadrat Umar (r.a.) appointed Hadrat Ali (r.a.) as his deputy and went to Jerusalem with his slave. They were having one camel on which each of them rode by turn. When Hadrat Umar (r.a.) was entering Jerusalem it happened to be the slave’s turn to ride on the camel. Though the slave offered his turn to the "Khalifah" but Hadrat Umar refused and remarked: "The honour of Islam (i.e., being Muslim) is enough for all of us." He entered Jerusalem holding the rope of the camel on which was riding his slave. His clothes were dirty and there were several patches on them.
—Encyclopaedia of Islam
"Yet the abstinence and humility of Umar were not inferior to the virtues of Abu Bakr: his food consisted of barley bread or dates; his drink was water; he preached in a gown that was torn or tattered in twelve places; and a Persian satrap, who paid his homage as to the conqueror, found him asleep among the beggars on the steps of the mosque of Muslims"
"He used to monitor very closely the public policy and had kept the needs of the public central to his leadership approach. As second caliph of Islam, he refused to chop off the hands of the thieves because he felt he had fallen short of his responsibility to provide meaningful employment to all his subjects. As a ruler of a vast kingdom, His vision was to ensure that every one in his kingdom should sleep on a full stomach.
If a dog dies hungry on the banks of the River Euphrates, Umar will be responsible for dereliction of duty.
—(Umar(r))
He also knew that just having a vision is not enough unless it is supported by effective strategies. He didn’t only have a vision; he truly transformed his vision into actions. For example, to ensure that nobody sleeps hungry in his empire, he used to walk through the streets almost every night to see if there is any one needy or ill." Caliph Umar(r)'s empire at its peak, 644.
Caliph Umar(r)'s sword:
Uthman ibn Affan (R)
(The Third Caliph)
`Uthman(r) was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca, a powerful family of the Quraish tribe`Uthman(r)'s father, Affan, died young while travelling abroad but left a large inheritance to `Uthman(r). `Uthman(r) followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him one of the richest men among the Qurayshi tribe
Uthman(r) is said to have spent a great amount of his wealth on charity. Uthman(r) was amongst the only 17 literate people in Mecca who could read or write and he was amongst the first four male to convert to Islam, other were, Zayd and Abu bakr(r). after Ali, Zayd and Abu bakr(r).
Acceptence of Islam:
On returning from a business trip to Syria in 611, `Uthman(r) found out that Muhammad(S) had declared his mission. After a discussion with his friend Abu bakr(r) `Uthman(r) decided to convert to Islam, and Abu bakr(r) took him to Muhammad(S) to whom he declared his faith.
Migrations:
Due to the severe persecution of Muslims by the Quresh, on the order of Muhammad(S), `Uthman(r) and his wife Ruqayya(r) migrated to Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) in 614–615, along with 11 men and 11 women, all Muslims.
After two years the news had spread among the Muslims in Abyssinia that the Quraysh of Mecca had accepted Islam, and that persuaded `Uthman(r), Ruqayya(r) and some other Muslims to return. However when they reached Mecca it transpired that the news about the Quraysh's acceptance of Islam was false. Some of the Muslims who had come from Abyssinia returned but `Uthman(r) and Ruqayya(r) decided to stay.
In 622, `Uthman(r) and his wife, Ruqayya, (r) migrated to Medina. They were amongst the third batch of Muslims who migrated to Medina.
Life in Madina:
On arrival in Medina, After a short while, `Uthman(r) purchased a house of his own and moved there. Being one of the richest merchants of Mecca, and having amassed a considerable fortune, Uthman(r) did not need any financial help from his Ansari brothers, as he brought all his wealth with him to Medina. In Medina, the Muslims were generally farmers and were not very interested in trade, and thus most of the trading that took place in the town was handled by the Jews. Thus, there was considerable space for the Muslims in promoting trade and `Uthman(r) took advantage of this position, soon establishing himself as a trader in Medina. He worked hard and honestly, and his business flourished, soon becoming one of the richest men in Medina.
Uthman(r) stayed at Medina to look after the ailing Ruqayya(r) (his wife) and did not join those who left with Muhammad(S) for the battle of Badr. Ruqayya(r) died during the time the Battle of Badr was being fought and the news of the victory of Badr reached Medina as she was being buried.
After the Battle of Uhud Uthman(r) married Muhammad(S)'s second daughter, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad(r). The next year Uthman(r) son through his 1st wife, Ruqayyah(r), Abd-Allah ibn Uthman(r), died. Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad(r), also died after the conquest of Mecca
In 630 Muhammad(S) decided to lead an expedition to Tabuk on the Syrian border. In order to finance the expedition Muhammad(S) invited contributions from his followers. Uthman(r) made the largest contribution: 1,000 dinars in cash, 1,000 camels for transport, and horses for the cavalry, which Muhammad(S) greatly appreciated.
In March of 628 (6 Hijri), Muhammad(S) set out for Mecca to perform the ritual pilgrimage of Umra. The Quraysh denied the Muslims entry into the city. Muhammad(S) camped outside Mecca, at Hudaybiyyah, and sent Uthman(r) as his envoy to meet with the leaders of Quraysh and negotiate Muslim entry into the city. The Quraysh made Uthman(r) stay longer in Mecca than he originally planned and refused to inform the Muslims of his where abouts.
This caused the Muslims to believe that Uthman(r) had been killed by the people of Quraysh. On this occasion, Muhammad(S) gathered his nearly 1,400 soldiers and called them to pledge to fight until death and avenge the rumored death of Uthman(r), which they did by placing a hand on top of Muhammad(S)'s. It is reported that Muhammad(S) placed one of his hands on top of the other and pledged on behalf of Uthman(r) as well. They soon released Uthman(r) and sent down an ambassador of their own, Suhail ibn Amr to negotiate terms of a treaty that later became known as the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.
Appointment as the third caliph
Umar(r), on his death bed formed a committee of six people to choose the next Caliph from amongst themselves.
This committee was:
- Ali(r)
- Uthman(r) ibn Affan(r)
- Abdur Rahman bin Awf(r)
- Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas(r)
- Al-Zubayr(r)
- Talhah(r)
Umar(r) asked that, after his death, the committee reach a final decision within three days, and the next Caliph should take the oath of office on the fourth day.
the majority of the people favored the election of Uthman(r). On the fourth day after the death of Umar(r), 11 November 644, 5 Muharram 24 Hijri, Uthman(r) was elected as the third Caliph, with the title "Amir al-Mu'minin".
On assuming office, Uthman(r) issued a number of directives to the officials all over the dominions, ordering them to hold fast the laws made by his predecessor Umar(r).
Uthman(r)'s realm extended in the west to Morocco, in the east to South east Pakistan, and in the north to Armenia and Azerbaijan. During his caliphate, the first Islamic naval force was established, administrative divisions of the state were revised, and many public projects were expanded and completed.
Uthman(r) ruled for twelve years. The first six years were marked by internal peace and tranquility, but during the second half of his caliphate a rebellion arose. Uthman(r) had the distinction of working for the expansion of Islam, and he sent the first official Muslim envoy to China in 650, headed by Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas(r), arrived in the Tang capital, Chang'an, in 651 via the overseas route. The Hui people generally consider this date to be the official founding of Islam in China
Economic reforms:
Uthman(r) was a shrewd businessman and a successful trader from his youth, which contributed greatly to the Rashidun Empire. Umar(r) had fixed the allowance of the people and on assuming office, Uthman(r) increased it by about 25%. Umar(r) had placed a ban on the sale of lands and the purchase of agricultural lands in conquered territories. Uthman(r) withdrew these restrictions, in view of the fact that the trade could not flourish.
Uthman(r) also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury. the first Islamic coins were struck during the caliphate of Uthman(r), these were the Persian dirhams that had an image of the Persian emperor Yazdgerd III with the addition of the Arabic sentence Bismillah (بسم الله) (in the name of Allah).
Umar(r) was very strict in the use of money from the public treasury. Apart from the meagre allowance that had been sanctioned in his favour, Umar(r) took no money from the treasury. He did not receive any gifts, nor did he allow any of his family members to accept any gift from any quarter.
During the time of Uthman(r) there was some relaxation in such strictness. Uthman(r) did not draw any allowance from the treasury for his personal use, nor did he receive a salary, he was a wealthy man with sufficient resources of his own, but unlike Umar(r), Uthman(r) accepted gifts and allowed his family members to accept gifts from certain quarters. The economic reforms introduced by Uthman(r) had far reaching effects; Muslims as well as non-Muslims of the Rashidun Empire enjoyed an economically prosperous life during his reign.
Public work :
Under Uthman(r) the people became economically more prosperous, and they invested their money in the construction of buildings. Many new and larger buildings were constructed throughout the empire. During the caliphate of Uthman(r) as many as five thousand new mosques were constructed. Uthman(r) enlarged, extended, and embellished the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at Medina and the Kaaba as well. With the expansion of the army, the cantonments were extended and enlarged, more barracks were constructed for the soldiers and stables for the cavalry were extended. Uthman(r) provided separate pastures for state camels.
During the caliphate of Uthman(r), guest houses were provided in main cities to provide comfort to the merchants coming from faraway places. More and more markets were constructed and Uthman(r) appointed Market Officers to look after them. In Iraq, Egypt and Persia numerous canals were dug, which stimulated agricultural development. In the cities, particular attention was directed towards the provision of the water supply. In Medina, a number of wells were dug to provide drinking water for the people and in Mecca the water supply was also improved. Water was brought to Kufa and Basra by canals. Uthman(r) also reformed the police departments in cities.
First official copies of Qur’an:
During the time of Uthman(r), by which time Islam had spread far and wide, differences in reading the Quran in different dialects of Arabic language occured. Some people according to their knowledge and understanding even made their own unofficial copies of Qur’an. therefore Uthman(r) to preserve the authenticity of the Qur'an, through the authority of Zayd ibn Thabit and some other companions, made the first 7 hand written official copies of the Qur’an from the original preserved copy which was with hafsa(r), and then distributed these 7 official copies of Qur’an to the main 7 ruling state, of his time, amongst them were, Medina, Syria, Yemen, Bahrain, Basra, Kufa.. and the other, all unofficial copies of the Qur'an were taken from the people by the government and were eliminated. One of the seven official copies
Military expansion:
Islamic empire expanded at unprecedented rate under Caliph Umar(r), following the death of Caliph Umar(r), almost whole of the former Sassanid empire's territory rebelled from time to time until 650, when the last Sassanid emperor was assassinated. Caliph `Uthman(r) thus directed several military expeditions to crush rebellion and re-capture the Persia and their vassal states.
A naval force was built and island of Cyprus was captured in 649 followed by the capture of Crete and Rhodes. After a naval victory against Byzantine fleet a part of Sicily was also captured. North Africa was invaded in 647. Byzantine Exarchate of Africa was annexed. Nubia was invaded in 652 and its capital Dongola was sacked. In 652–653 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded and its coastal areas were captured, before further expansion could be made Caliph was murdered and forces were pulled back from Iberia and north Africa during Muslim civil war.
Campaigns against Uthman(r):
According to Muslim sources, unlike his predecessor, Umar(r), who maintained discipline with a stern hand, Uthman(r) was less rigorous upon his people; he focused more on economic prosperity. Under Uthman(r), the people became economically more prosperous and on the political plane they came to enjoy a larger degree of freedom. No institutions were devised to channel political activity, and, in the absence of such institutions, the pre-Islamic tribal jealousies and rivalries, which had been suppressed under earlier caliphs, erupted once again. In view of the lenient policies adopted by Uthman(r), the people took advantage of such liberties, which became a headache for the state, and it culminated in the assassination of Uthman(r).
[Sirat-i-Hazrat Usman-i-Ghani, by Mohammad Alias Aadil.]
Moreover, the foreign powers became nervous at the success of the Muslims under the leadership of Uthman(r), and now their only hope lay in aiding and abetting subversive movements within the territories of Uthman(r)'s caliphate. According to some viewpoints, under such circumstances, people like Abdullah Ibn Saba (a Jewish scholar who accepted Islam) felt that it was a good opportunity to accomplish their aims of rebellion by starting arguments over religion. Due to the lack of any particular political department to deal with the growing political agitation in the Islamic state, the political leaders in various towns campaigned against Uthman(r)
The campaign was also supported by some companions who had a personal grievance with Uthman(r), who were stripped of the governorship by Uthman(r) and who Uthman(r) had refused to appoint as a governor of any province..etc
The actual reason for the anti-Uthman(r) movement is disputed among the Shia and Sunni Muslims.
[Muhammad and the Conquests of Islam, Francesco Gabrieli, London 1968]
The situation was becoming tense and so the Uthman(r) administration had to investigate the origins and extent of anti-government propaganda and its aims. Some time around 654, Uthman(r) called all the governors of his 12 provinces to Medina to discuss the problem. In this Council of Governors, Uthman(r) directed the governors that they should adopt all the expedients they had suggested, according to local circumstances. Later, in the Majlis al Shurah (council of ministry), it was suggested to Uthman(r) that reliable agents should be sent to various provinces to investigate the matter and report about the sources of such rumours
Further In 655, Uthman(r) directed the people who had any grievance against the administration to assemble at Mecca for the Hajj. He promised them that all their legitimate grievances would be redressed. He directed the governors and the "Amils" throughout the empire to come to Mecca on the occasion of the Hajj.
In response to the call of Uthman(r), the opposition came in large delegations from various cities to present their grievances. before the gathering, Uthman(r) addressed the people and gave a long explanation of the criticism about himself and his administration and then said: "I have had my say. Now I am prepared to listen to you. If any one of you has any legitimate grievance against me or my Government you are free to give expression to such grievance, and I assure you that, I will do my best to redress such grievance."
The rebels realized that the people in Mecca supported the defence offered by Uthman(r) and were not in the mood to listen to them. That was a great psychological victory for Uthman(r). It is said Syria, the governor Muawiyah(r), Uthman(r)’s cousin, suggested that he be allowed to send a strong force from Syria to Medina to guard Uthman(r) against any possible attempt by rebels to harm him. Uthman(r) rejected it, saying that the Syrian forces in Medina would be an incitement to civil war, and he could not be party to such a move.
After the Hajj of 655 things remained quiet for some time. With the dawn of the year 656, Medina, the capital city of Uthman(r), became a hotbed of intrigue and unrest. Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr(who was involved in anti-Usman campaign earlier as well) returned to Medina from Egypt, and assisted in leading a campaign against the Caliphate of Uthman(r).
When the crisis deepened in Medina, Uthman(r) addressed the congregation in the Masjid-e-Nabawi and gave an explanation and rebuttal of all the claims against him. The general public was again satisfied with Uthman(r). He had hoped that after his speech in which he had explained his position, and offered full defence for his actions, the allegedly false propaganda against him would cease.
Revolt against Uthman(r):
The politics of Egypt played the major role in the propaganda war against the caliphate, so Uthman(r) summoned Abdullah ibn Saad, the governor of Egypt, to Medina to consult with him the course of action that should be adopted. Abdullah ibn Saad came to Medina, leaving the affairs of Egypt to his deputy.In his absence, Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa staged a coup d'état and took power. On hearing of the revolt in Egypt, Abdullah hastened back
but Uthman(r) was not in a position to offer him any military assistance and, accordingly, Abdullah ibn Saad failed to recapture his power
In middle of 656, Uthman(r)’s governor of Kufa, Abu-Musa al-Asha'ari, was unable to control the province. In Basra the governor, Abdullah ibn Aamir, left for Hajj, and in his absence the affairs of the province fell into a state of confusion. The three main provinces of Egypt (which was already the center of the dissident movement), Kufa, and Basra became essentially independent from the Caliphate of Uthman(r), and became the center of revolt.
From Egypt a contingent of about 1,000 people were sent to Medina, with instructions to assassinate Uthman(r) and overthrow the government. Similar contingents marched from Kufa and Basra to Medina
In proposing alternatives to Uthman(r) as Caliph, the rebels neutralized the bulk of public opinion in Medina and Uthman(r)'s faction could no longer offer a united front. Uthman(r) had the active support of the Umayyads, and a few other people in Medina, but the rest of the people of Medina chose to be neutral and help neither side.
[Muhammad and the Conquests of Islam,]
Siege of Uthman(r)
The situation in Medina was a big gain for the rebels. When they felt satisfied that the people of Medina would not offer them any resistance, they entered the city of Medina and laid siege to the house of Uthman(r). Uthman(r) strongly instructed his supporters to refrain from violence. Uthman(r), who was a wealthy man even from the days before Islam, freed all 40 of his slaves and ordered them to stay away from the civil war between the Muslims.
The early stage of the siege of Uthman(r)’s house was not severe,
the rebels merely hovered around the house and did not place any restrictions on him. Uthman(r) went to the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi as usual, and led the prayers. The rebels offered prayers under the leadership of Uthman(r). While Uthman(r) addressed the people in the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi he was criticized by opponents. At this the supporters of Uthman(r) took up cudgels on his behalf. Tempers flared up on both sides, hot words were exchanged between the parties, and that led to the pelting of stones at one another. One of the stones hit Uthman(r), he fell unconscious and was carried to his house, still unconscious.
Uthman(r)’s martyrdom:
When the rebels felt that the people of Medina were not likely to offer active support to Uthman(r), they changed their strategy, and tightened the siege of the house of Uthman(r), thus confining Uthman(r) to his home. Uthman(r) was denied the freedom to move about and was not allowed to go to the mosque.
As the days passed, the rebels intensified their pressure against Uthman(r). They forbade the entry of any food or provisions, and later water as well, into his house, even turning down the wifes of Muhammad(s) Ramlah bint Abi-Sufyan(r), came to see Uthman(r) and brought some water and provisions for him but she was not allowed to enter. Another wife of Muhammad(s), and the daughter of the late Caliph Abu bakr(r), Aisha(r), made a similar attempt, and she was also prevailed upon by the rebels to go back. During the siege, Uthman(r) was asked by his supporters, who outnumbered the rebels, to let them fight against the rebels and rout them. Uthman(r) prevented them in an effort to avoid the bloodshed of Muslim by Muslim. But Unfortunately violence occurred and the gates of the house of Uthman(r) were shut and guarded by the renowned warrior, Abd-Allah ibn al-Zubayr and it is believed that the sons of Ali(r), Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali(r) were also amongst the guards.
[The Murder of the Caliph `Uthman(r), M. Hinds, in International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 1972]
Finding the gate of Uthman(r)'s house strongly guarded by his supporters, the rebels climbed the back wall and sneaked inside, leaving the guards on the gate unaware of what was going on inside. The rebels entered his room and struck blows at his head. Naila, the wife of Uthman(r), threw herself on his body to protect him. Raising her hand to protect him. she had her fingers chopped off and was pushed aside, and further blows were struck until he was dead. The supporters of Uthman(r) then counter attacked the assassins and, in turn, killed them. There was further fighting between the rebels and the supporters of Uthman(r), with casualties on both sides, after which the rebels looted the house. [The Martyrdom of Uthman(r) ibn Affan, by Shaykh Zahir. ISBN : 58]
The rioters wanted to mutilate his body and were keen that he be denied burial. When some of the rioters came forward to mutilate the body of Uthman(r), his two widows, Nailah and Ramlah bint Sheibah(r), covered him, and raised loud cries which deterred the rioters. The rebels left the house and the supporters of Uthman(r) at gate hearing it, entered. Thereafter the rioters maintained a presence round the house in order to prevent the dead body from being carried to the graveyard.[ Uthman(r) ibn Affan]Funeral:
After the body of Uthman(r) had been in the house for three days. The body was lifted at dusk, and because of the blockade ,no coffin could be procured. The body was not washed, as Islamic teaching states that martyrs' bodies are not supposed to be washed before burial. Thus Uthman(r) was carried to the graveyard in the clothes that he was wearing at the time of his assassination. and he was buried behind Jannat al-Baqi, the Muslim graveyard.[ ^ `Uthman(r) ibn `Affan: The Man With Two Lights (Part Two)]
His Legacy
It is said that Uthman(r) was one of the most handsome and charming men of his time. Uthman(r) was well known for his reported generosity. During Muhammad(S)'s time, while in Medina, he financed the project for the construction of the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi and purchased the well Beer Rauma, which he dedicated to the free use of all Muslims.
Uthman(r)’s generosity continued after he became caliph. Uthman(r) apparently led a simple life even after becoming the Caliph of the Rashidun Empire, though it would have been easy for a successful businessman such as him to lead a luxurious life. The caliphs were paid for their services from bait al-mal, the public treasury, but Uthman(r) never took any salary for his service as a Caliph, as he was independently wealthy.
Uthman(r) also developed a custom to free slaves every Friday, look after the widows and orphans, and give unlimited charity. He was a devoted Muslim, As a way of taking care of Muhammad(S)’s wives, he doubled their allowances. His patience and endurance were among the characteristics that made him a successful leader.
Ali ibn Abu talib (R)
(The fourth Caliph)
Ali(r) was known as Asadullah, which in Arabic means "Lion of Allah"
Ali(r), was the fourth and the final of the Rashidun (rightly guided Caliphs), he was raised in the household of Muhammad(S), Ali(r) was the first male to accept Islam. Ali(r) declared Islam at the age of 10, he dedicated his life to the cause of Islam. Ali(r) is respected for his courage, knowledge, belief, honesty, unbending devotion to Islam, deep loyalty to Muhammad(S), equal treatment of all Muslims and generosity in forgiving his defeated enemies.
Acceptance of Islam
According to al-Tabari, Ibn Athir and Abu al-Fida, Muhammad(S) announced at invitational events that whoever assisted him in his invitation would become his brother, trustee and successor. Only Ali(r), who was thirteen or fourteen years old, stepped forward to help him. This invitation was repeated three times, but Ali(r) was the only person who answered Muhammad(S). Upon Ali(r)'s constant and only answer to his call, Muhammad(S) declared that Ali(r) was his brother, inheritor and vice-regent and people must obey him.
During the persecution of Muslims and boycott of the Banu Hashim in Mecca, Ali(r) stood firmly in support of Muhammad(S). Ali(r) even risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad(S)'s bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot. This night is called Laylat al-Mabit.
According to some hadith, a verse was revealed about Ali(r) concerning his sacrifice on the night of Hijra which says, "And among men is he who sells his nafs (self) in exchange for the pleasure of Allah". Ali(r) risked his life again by staying in Mecca to carry out Muhammad(S)'s instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad(S) for safekeeping. Ali(r) then went to Medina with his mother, Muhammad(S)'s daughter Fatimah and two other women.
In medina
Ali(r) was extremely active in Muhammad(S) service as his secretary and deputy, serving in his armies, the bearer of his banner in every battle, leading parties of warriors on raids, and carrying messages and orders. As one of Muhammad(S)'s lieutenants, and later his son-in-law, Ali(r) was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.
Ali(r) was married to Muhammad(S) ‘s daughter Fatima(r) ,about this marriage, Muhammad(S) said to Fatimah(r): "I have married you to the dearest of my family to me."
At the beginning they were extremely poor. For several years after his marriage, Fatimah(r) did all of the household work by herself. The shoulder on which she carried pitchers of water from the well was swollen and the hand with which she worked the hand mill to grind corn were often covered with blisters. Fatimah(r) vouched to take care of the household work, make dough, bake bread, and clean the house; in return, Ali(r) vouched to take care of the outside work such as gathering firewood, and bringing food.] Their circumstances were akin to many of the Muslims at the time and which only improved following the Battle of Khaybar when the wealth of Khaybar was distributed among the poor. When the economic situations of the Muslims become better, Fatimah(r) gained some maids but she treated them like her family and performed the house duties with them.]
participations in battles
With the exception of the Battle of Tabouk, Ali(r) took part in all battles and expeditions fought for Islam.] As well as being the standard-bearer in those battles, Ali(r) led parties of warriors on raids into enemy lands.Ali(r) first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Umayyad champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. According to Muslim traditions Ali(r) killed between twenty and thirty-five enemies in battle, most agreeing with twenty-seven.
Ali(r) was prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other battles where he wielded a bifurcated sword known as Zulfiqar. it was said "There is no brave youth except Ali(r) and there is no sword which renders service except Zulfiqar."] He was commander of the Muslim army in the Battle of Khaybar.]
Ali (r) sword
Following this battle Mohammad gave Ali(r) the name Asadullah, which in Arabic means "Lion of Allah" or "Lion of God". Ali(r) also defended Muhammad(S) in the Battle of Hunayn in 630.]
companionship with Muhammad(S) and Caliphs
Muhammad(S) designated Ali(r) as one of the scribes who would write down the text of the Qur'an, which had been revealed to Muhammad(S) during the previous two decades. As Islam began to spread throughout Arabia, Ali(r) helped establish the new Islamic order. He was also instructed to write down the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah,
Umar(r) particularly relied upon Ali(r) as the Chief Judge of Medina. Ali(r) was one of the electoral council to choose the third caliph which was appointed by Umar(r)
The fourth Caliph
Ali(r) was elected as caliph after the assassination of Usman(r) ,between the year, 656 and 661, it was one of the more turbulent periods in Muslim history, which also coincided with the First Fitna.
Ali(r) inherited the Rashidun Caliphate—which extended from Egypt in the west to the Iranian highlands in the east. His policy of equal distribution of taxes and booty gained the support of Muhammad(S)'s companions.
Later Ali(r) was challenged by Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Uthman(r), who refused Ali(r)'s demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman(r). Ali(r) was not able to take any action on the assassination of Usman(r) on that particular period of time, because of the high tension created in the medina by the rebels. Ali(r) opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali(r) on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election.
The two armies of Ali(r) and Muawiya encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali(r) exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657.
Later this battle was settled between the two armies in the light of Qur’an . but also this battle caused split in Ali(r)’s army due to various reasons. The split gave birth to the kharji sect. which was later responsible for the assassination of Ali(r)
martyrdom
On the 19th of Ramadan, while worshipping in the Great Mosque of Kufa, Ali(r) was attacked by the Khawarij Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. Ali(r) ordered his sons not to attack the Kharijites, instead stipulating that if he survived, ibn Muljam would be pardoned whereas if he died, ibn Muljam should be given only one equal hit (regardless of whether or not he dies from the hit).]The wound Ali(r) received by ibn Muljam's poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr prayer resulted in his martyrdom in Kufa a few days later on February 28, 661 (21 Ramadan 40 A.H)
Kufa masjid
His legacy
Ali(r) is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. Numerous range of disciplines from theology and exegesis to calligraphy and numerology, from law and mysticism to Arabic grammar and Rhetoric regarded as having been first adumbrated by Ali(r).] Ali(r) was also a great scholar of Arabic literature and pioneered in the field of Arabic grammar and rhetoric. He was widely praised and famous for his wisdom and knowledge.
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